Question How do stars form?

[Catastrophe]

Harry,

Yes, the universe is infinite.

Infinite is a non-term. It is a mathematical fiction based on an impossible (unrealistic) predication
(a declaration of something self-evident; something that can be assumed as the basis for argument

As long as we have the 'current' speed of light, we are stuck with the constraints of a limited observable (personal) universe (small 'u'). In this context I can almost sanction the use of a non-word, since it seems to me unlikely that mankind will progress beyond this during the time we might reasonably expect to exist.

Since we will probably never pass beyond the constraint of a relatively small (if you want some linguistic nonsense, then call it infinitely small) shared observable universe since mankind is effectively limited (for the time being at least) (we might as well approximate a shared observable universe) it is, IMHO, senseless to waste time thinking about it.

I would settle for "the Universe is of unknowable extent. Best restrict ourselves to our observable universe(s)".

Cat

 

[Harry Costas]

Hello Catastrophe
The term infinite
means infinite.

Years gone by.
The universe was thought to be only our milky way.
Then the Hubble telescope showed the world deep field image 13.2 billion years.
and trillions of stars.
Now the James Webb can see 13.4 billion plus.
Once we thought we could see one super cluster of galaxy.
Now we can see over 19 super clusters.

The only limit we have is when people limit the possibilities.

Yes, the universe is infinite, and we can predict what is beyond.

 

[Catastrophe]

Hello Catastrophe
The term infinite
means infinite.

Years gone by.
The universe was thought to be only our milky way.
Then the Hubble telescope showed the world deep field image 13.2 billion years.
and trillions of stars.
Now the James Webb can see 13.4 billion plus.
Once we thought we could see one super cluster of galaxy.
Now we can see over 19 super clusters.

The only limit we have is when people limit the possibilities.

Yes, the universe is infinite, and we can predict what is beyond.

Harry, I disagree. The limit is set by the speed of light and the distance of originating object. Even without any alleged expansion, it may be that some objects are so far away that their light will never reach our descendants before humans become extinct, if ever.

The speed of light and distance of originating objects are beyond our control. Hence humans do not limit any possibilities. How can we predict "what is beyond"?



Cat

 

[Harry Costas]

On one hand you say the universe is infinite and on the other hand you have a limit.

I had similar discussion with NASA before the million second Hubble focus in an area of rice seed.
They told me that we would see the start of the BB.
I told them that they will see over 5000 galaxies in various stages as though they have been there.

 

[Atlan0001]

Infinity (both infinite and infinitesimal, in fact ultimately one and the same) is quality, not quantity. Countless. Without number. How many universes are on the head of a pin . . . the crest of a fingernail . . . in a drop of water?! Innumerable! An open system. A closed system. Open systemically, far and away well beyond the speed of light. And, at once, closed systemically, well within the speed of light. Multi-dimensional MULTIVERSE Universe of many universes, many horizons, many worlds.

The expansion, and the compaction (contraction) is the reactive equal but opposite local to the distant nonlocal infinite. It marks the local finite, relative "potential" of the distant (distant in omni directions) nonlocal infinity (both infinite and infinitesimal).

 

[Atlan0001]

"How can we predict what is beyond?" One predictable prediction in Chaos Theory's fractal zooms levels of universe (universes) is easily predictable, we are what is beyond. Our world of observability is beyond a horizon of relativity's breakdown . . . and this side of yet another horizon of relativity's breakdown. A ship, or a hologram, or a warp-space-bubble soliton, afloat in infinities (including infinities of event branches (universal branching out into every possible path at every individual point of spacetime . . . entropy, the never-ending turn, return, to the 'Wild')).

 

[Adoni Yannop]

Yes, the universe is infinite.

M87 is closer to 10 billion solar masses.
It is the center and gravity sink of our local group of galaxies, which includes the Milkyway and Andromeda.
Which is part with other groups of galaxies forming part of the Virgo Supercluster, which has a core over 200 billion solar masses as a rough estimate considering being a gravity sink for many local groups of galaxies.
Which is part of the Laniakea Supercluster, which forms part of a group of superclusters of superclusters.

Tongue twister.
There is no mechanical limit to a condensate core.
Mechanics of what?

Well Harry!! What you call a mechanical Condensate Core Attractor, I call a harmonized low GP1 Aether Particle System similar to a Low Air Pressure-Low GP1 Aether Particle System Pressure System on Earth Except that the precipitation instead of rain and storms is Stars, Galaxies, Local Galactic Groups And Virgo Type Galactic Clusters!!
I've never seen an estimate for M87's SMBH of more than 7.22 billion solar masses with the current Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration estimate given @6.5 billion solar masses in April 2019!!
M87's SMBH is at the center of a Low GP1 Aether Particle System similar to the Eye Of A Hurricane on Earth With Its Low GP1 Aether Particle System Accretion Disc extending all the way to our Local Galactic Group 55 million light years away!!
All planet and star low GP1 Aether Particle Systems combine their low GP1 Aether Particle pressure to form galactic low GP1 Aether Particle System Accretion Discs that combine their low GP1 Aether Particle pressure to form galactic low GP1 Aether Particle System Accretion Discs that form Local Galactic Group low GP1 Aether Particle Systems!!
And the local galactic groups around M87 as the GP1 Aether Particles Flow to M87's SMBH as matter heats up in and around M87 Galaxy the fastest creating the lowest GP1 Aether Particle Pressure Locally that come together to make the Virgo Centric LOW GP1 Aether Particle System and The LOW Virgo Supercluster GP1 Aether Particle System!!
The only difference in our thoughts is whether physical GP1 Aether Particles of mass flow and "PUSH" our local galactic group around M87 and towards M87 as the GP1 Aether Particles Flow to M87's SMBH as matter heats up in and around M87 Galaxy the fastest!!
Or If the magical properties of "Condensate Matter" some how "ATTRACT" all the Virgo Centric Galaxies towards M87 Galaxy and each other!!

 

[Harry Costas]

Hello Adoni
I did not call it a mechanical condensate.

Quantum Mechanics is quite different.

I think in my opinion. you need to research a bit more before you start concluding.

But! good imagination sometimes goes along way.

 

[Adoni Yannop]

Hello Adoni
I did not call it a mechanical condensate.

Quantum Mechanics is quite different.

I think in my opinion. you need to research a bit more before you start concluding.

But! good imagination sometimes goes along way.

Harry!! What does "There is no mechanical limit to a condensate core." mean??
Are you trying to say that there is no upper mass limit to A SMBH??
Even though the most massive SMBH, yet discovered, is given as Phoenix A @100 Billion Solar Masses??
Appreciate your response!! Have a nice day!!

PS): My understanding of Quantum Mechanics is that it's the science of measurement?? Am I wrong??

 

[Harry Costas]

Give it time.
There are always bigger.
The limit has not been recorded.

We cannot set a limit, yet.

Ton 618 is about 66 billion solar masses.
Phoenix A 100 billion

Wait till the cows come home.

The core of superclusters of galaxies, is a possible contestant.
The core of clusters of superclusters, will it end.
I would not be surprised in the near future, to have 200 billion solar masses.

No limits yet

 

[Harry Costas]

Quantum Mechanics is about atoms and subatomic particles.

The word Quantum was introduced by Max Planck1900, trying to find the smallest.

 

[Harry Costas]

Catastrophe said.

"Harry, I disagree. The limit is set by the speed of light and the distance of originating object. Even without any alleged expansion, it may be that some objects are so far away that their light will never reach our descendants before humans become extinct, if ever.

The speed of light and distance of originating objects are beyond our control. Hence humans do not limit any possibilities. How can we predict "what is beyond"?"

The universe is infinite.
Whatever objects are out there, they have reached us.
Even if they go through their cycles.

 

[Harry Costas]

All theories are up for grabs.

Contraction and expansion of small and extreme large are investigated.

Core of a supper cluster can pull in matter from afar millions of light years.
The core also expels along a vortex millions of light years. In the vortex you can fit galaxies. Prime example of Nucleosynthesis as explained by the Big Bang Theory, I'm not saying it is the Big Bang.
Our Milkyway is part of a group of galaxies that belong to a super cluster. We are in its grip and one day in a trillion years will be sucked into the core.

Contraction and expansion are determined by the gravity sinks around us.

The following is food for thought, it is complex, food for thought.

[Submitted on 12 Sep 2023]

Neutrinos and Heavy Element Nucleosynthesis​

Xilu Wang, Rebecca Surman

This chapter discusses three nucleosynthesis processes involved in producing heavy nuclei beyond the iron group that are influenced or shaped by neutrino interactions: the v process, the vp process and the r process. These processes are all related to explosive events involving compact objects, such as core-collapse supernovae and binary neutron star mergers, where an abundant amount of neutrinos are emitted. The interactions of the neutrinos with nucleons and nuclei through both charged-current and neutral-current reactions play a crucial role in the nucleosynthesis processes. During the propagation of neutrinos inside the nucleosynthesis sites, neutrinos may undergo flavor oscillations that can also potentially affect the nucleosynthesis yields. Here we provide a general overview of the possible effects of neutrinos and neutrino flavor conversions on these three heavy-element nucleosynthesis processes.

 

[Adoni Yannop]

Catastrophe said.

"Harry, I disagree. The limit is set by the speed of light and the distance of originating object. Even without any alleged expansion, it may be that some objects are so far away that their light will never reach our descendants before humans become extinct, if ever.

The speed of light and distance of originating objects are beyond our control. Hence humans do not limit any possibilities. How can we predict "what is beyond"?"

The universe is infinite.
Whatever objects are out there, they have reached us.
Even if they go through their cycles.

Catastrophe, Why are gravitational waves and electromagnetic waves both given to propagate at the speed of light?? The answer is simple both waves propagate in the same GP1 Aether Particles Medium!!
By allowing gravitational waves and electromagnetic waves to both propagate in the same Real Gaseous GP1 Aether Particle of Mass Medium all the mysteries of modern physics can be explained including gravity and dark matter gravity, the event horizon of black holes and much much more!!
Electromagnetic waves are given to have all the properties of sound waves including but not limited to constructive and destructive interference, doppler effect, momentum effect and much much more BUTTE, magically, without a physical gaseous GP1 Aether Particle Medium about a quintillionth the mass of the neutrino!!
Smile Often and See What Happens!! Have A Nice Day!!

 

[Harry Costas]

Its healthy to express your opinion.
Someone said:
"Right or wrong your coming with me".

I have drawn some images to explain dipolar electro-magnetic fields and condensate Transients.
I will try to download.

 

[Harry Costas]

Quark Condensates are at the phase where possible Event Horizons can form.


[Submitted on 15 Nov 2023]

The ALMA-QUARKS survey: -- I. Survey description and data reduction​

Xunchuan Liu, Tie Liu, Lei Zhu, Guido Garay, Hong-Li Liu, Paul Goldsmith, Neal Evans, Kee-Tae Kim, Sheng-Yuan Liu, Fengwei Xu, Xing Lu, Anandmayee Tej, Xiaofeng Mai, Leonardo Bronfman, Shanghuo Li, Diego Mardones, Amelia Stutz, Ken'ichi Tatematsu, Ke Wang, Qizhou Zhang, Sheng-Li Qin, Jianwen Zhou, Qiuyi Luo, Siju Zhang, Yu Cheng, Jinhua He, Qilao Gu, Ziyang Li, Zhenying Zhang, Suinan Zhang, Anindya Saha, Lokesh Dewangan, Patricio Sanhueza, Zhiqiang Shen

This paper presents an overview of the QUARKS survey, which stands for `Querying Underlying mechanisms of massive star formation with ALMA-Resolved gas Kinematics and Structures'. The QUARKS survey is observing 139 massive clumps covered by 156 pointings at ALMA Band 6 (λ∼ 1.3 mm). In conjunction with data obtained from the ALMA-ATOMS survey at Band 3 (λ∼ 3 mm), QUARKS aims to carry out an unbiased statistical investigation of massive star formation process within protoclusters down to a scale of 1000 au. This overview paper describes the observations and data reduction of the QUARKS survey, and gives a first look at an exemplar source, the mini-starburst Sgr B2(M). The wide-bandwidth (7.5 GHz) and high-angular-resolution (~0.3 arcsec) observations of the QUARKS survey allow to resolve much more compact cores than could be done by the ATOMS survey, and to detect previously unrevealed fainter filamentary structures. The spectral windows cover transitions of species including CO, SO, N2D+, SiO, H30α, H2CO, CH3CN and many other complex organic molecules, tracing gas components with different temperatures and spatial extents. QUARKS aims to deepen our understanding of several scientific topics of massive star formation, such as the mass transport within protoclusters by (hub-)filamentary structures, the existence of massive starless cores, the physical and chemical properties of dense cores within protoclusters, and the feedback from already formed high-mass young protostars.

 

[Harry Costas]

The search for star formation has been on the cards since the time scientists have been thinking about it.
The path has many twists and turns.
Keep on researching.

Its Xmas
Merry Xmas
Happy Holidays
May the new year bring you more thoughts.

[Submitted on 25 Dec 2023]

An AstroSat/UVIT study of galaxies in the cluster Abell 2199​

Smriti Mahajan, Kulinderpal Singh, Somak Raychaudhury

(abridged) We present the newly acquired data for an AstroSat/UVIT field centered on a face-on spiral starburst galaxy UGC 10420, located in the cluster Abell 2199. We have analysed the FUV data for this field along with the archival data from the Galex mission, optical photometric data from the SDSS, and low-frequency radio data from the LoTSS survey, respectively. The stars were separated from the galaxies using the SDSS pipeline classification, while the spectroscopic redshifts available for 35% of the detected UVIT sources were used to identify member galaxies of the cluster Abell 2199. We find that (a) the non-cluster galaxies are on average fainter than the cluster galaxies at fixed magnitude, (b) stars and galaxies are indistinguishable in the r vs NUV-r plane, and (c) bright stars are ~1.5 mag bluer than the galaxies in the FUV-r vs NUV-r colour-colour plane. Besides UGC 10420 which is the only known cluster galaxy with an extended-UV disk, we identify five more galaxies with asymmetric FUV morphology and extended radio emission in this field. All the asymmetric member galaxies of Abell 2199, lie within the virial boundaries of the cluster. This observation, together with the fact that these asymmetric cluster galaxies have low-frequency radio tails or FUV emission pointing away from the cluster centre leads us to hypothesise that these galaxies are likely undergoing ram-pressure stripping (RPS) under the influence of cluster-environment related mechanisms. A comparison of optical and FUV star formation rate of UVIT detected galaxies shows enhanced star formation in half of the RPS candidates, suggesting that environment-related mechanisms may lead to a burst of star formation in RPS galaxies. Our analysis indicates the presence of at least two more groups or clusters at z~0.077 and 0.260, coincident with Abell 2199 along the line of sight of the field of view studied here.

 

[ajrusselljr]

I think stars form other stars when there is a super- nova.

 

[Harry Costas]

ajrusselljr​

Well, the resultant Supernova may leave a refreshed star.

As for new stars the fast way is to eject condensate droplets from the Black holes.

Condensates compaction may range from 10 to 17 to 10^35
Imagine when release from confinement to out of space.
Nucleosynthesis follows.
M87 has close to a trillion stars.
Imagine if you had to wait for matter to compact in all the Trillion places.

 

[Adoni Yannop]

ajrusselljr​

Well, the resultant Supernova may leave a refreshed star.

As for new stars the fast way is to eject condensate droplets from the Black holes.

Condensates compaction may range from 10 to 17 to 10^35
Imagine when release from confinement to out of space.
Nucleosynthesis follows.
M87 has close to a trillion stars.
Imagine if you had to wait for matter to compact in all the Trillion places.

Harry,
Once, you realize that the universe is infinitely old, then, it will be easy for you to see that matter can be physically compacted by stars, neutron stars and black holes an infinite number of times moving forward as neutron permeable sacs are rejuvenated and freshly minted to new embryonic indestructible neutron permeable sacs that when warmed up to absolute zero decay to hydrogen!!
Condensate Droplets cannot exist and therefore cannot be ejected from the neutronium ball of black holes formed from the compaction of proton permeable sacs and electron permeable sacs through reverse beta decay to embryonic neutrons and newly minted embryonic indestructible neutron permeable sacs to over 100 Trillion Times Earth Density and 300 Trillion Adoni-Kelvin Degrees Below Absolute Zero!!

But the neutronium balls of black holes and neutron stars can be chipped during neutron star mergers or neutron-black hole mergers or black hole-black hole mergers and those neutronium ball chips of embryonic neutrons will, immediately, warm by the CMBR to absolute zero, decay to hydrogen and rapidly accrete the newly inflated neutrons to form the observed gold and higher elements of neutron star mergers!!

Proof): Neutron star collisions are a “goldmine” of heavy elements, study finds Mergers between two neutron stars have produced more heavy elements in last 2.5 billion years than mergers between neutron stars and black holes.
Jennifer Chu | MIT News Office
Publication Date):October 25, 2021
“The magnitude of gold produced in the merger was equivalent to several times the mass of the Earth,” Chen says. “That entirely changed the picture. The math showed that binary neutron stars were a more efficient way to create heavy elements, compared to supernovae.”
Talk More Soon!! Have A Great Day!!

 

[Harry Costas]

Your comment in my opinion is completely wrong. I would encourage you to do more research on the properties of compact matter.

"Condensate Droplets cannot exist and therefore cannot be ejected from the neutronium ball of black holes formed from the compaction of proton permeable sacs and electron permeable sacs through reverse beta decay to embryonic neutrons and newly minted embryonic indestructible neutron permeable sacs to over 100 Trillion Times Earth Density and 300 Trillion Adoni-Kelvin Degrees Below Absolute Zero!!"

[Submitted on 2 Aug 2021]

QED Mesons, the QED Neutron, and the Dark Matter

Cheuk-Yin Wong

Schwinger's boson solution for massless fermions in QED in 1+1D has been applied and generalized to quarks interacting in QED and QCD interactions, leading to stable and confined open-string QED and QCD boson excitations of the quark-QCD-QED system in 1+1D. Just as the open-string QCD excitations in 1+1D can be the idealization of QCD mesons with a flux tube in 3+1D, so the open-string QED excitations in 1+1D may likewise be the idealization of QED mesons with masses in the tens of MeV region, corresponding possibly to the anomalous X17 and E38 particles observed recently. A further search for bound states of quarks interacting in the QED interaction alone leads to the examination on the stability of the QED neutron, consisting of two d quarks and one u quark. Theoretically, the QED neutron has been found to be stable and estimated to have a mass of 44.5 MeV, whereas the analogous QED proton is unstable, leading to a long-lived QED neutron that may be a good candidate for the dark matter.

 

[Harry Costas]

Research into Condensate droplets have been discussed for a few years. The journey is far from reaching conclusive evidence, but! looks promising.

[Submitted on 4 Sep 2023 (v1), last revised 14 Sep 2023 (this version, v2)]

Mini droplet, mega droplet and stripe formation in a dipolar condensate​

Luis E. Young-S., S. K. Adhikari

We demonstrate mini droplet, mega droplet and stripe formation in a dipolar 164Dy condensate, using an improved mean-field model including a Lee-Huang-Yang-type interaction, employing a quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D) trap in a way distinct from that in the pioneering experiment, M. A. Norcia et. al., Nature 596, 357 (2021), where the polarization z direction was taken to be perpendicular to the quasi-2D x-y plane. In the present study we take the polarization z direction in the quasi-2D x-z plane. Employing the same trapping frequencies as in the experiment, and interchanging the frequencies along the y and z directions, we find the formation of mini droplets for number of atoms N as small as N = 1000. With the increase of number of atoms, a spatially-periodic supersolid-like one-dimensional array of mega droplets containing 50000 to 200000 atoms are formed along the x direction in the x-y plane. These mega droplets are elongated along the polarization z direction, consequently, the spatially periodic arrangement of droplets appears as a stripe pattern in the x-z plane. To establish the supersolidity of the droplets we demonstrate continued dipole-mode and scissors-mode oscillations of the droplet-lattice pattern. The main findings of the present study can be tested experimentally with the present know-how.

 

[Harry Costas]

The understanding of Dipolar properties will allow us to apply to the bigger picture.

[Submitted on 7 Jan 2024 (v1), last revised 17 Jan 2024 (this version, v2)]

Vortex dynamics and turbulence in dipolar Bose-Einstein condensates​

S. Sabari, R. Kishor Kumar, Lauro Tomio

Quantum turbulence indicators in dipolar Bose-Einstein condensed fluids, following emissions of vortex-antivortex pairs generated by a circularly moving detuned laser, are being provided by numerical simulations of the corresponding quasi-two-dimensional Gross-Pitaevskii formalism with repulsive contact interactions combined with tunable dipole-dipole strength. The critical velocities of two variants of a circularly moving obstacle are determined and analyzed for vortex-antivortex nucleation in the form of regular and cluster emissions. The turbulent dynamical behavior is predicted to follow closely the initial emission of vortex-antivortex pairs, relying on the expected Kolmogorov's classical scaling law, which is verified by the spectral analysis of the incompressible part of the kinetic energy. Within our aim to provide further support in the up-to-now investigations of quantum turbulence, which have been focused on non-dipolar Bose-Einstein condensates, we emphasize the role of dipole-dipole interactions in the fluid dynamics.

 

[Harry Costas]

Star formation is most active in AGN.
M87 jet has millions of stars that have formed during the expelling of matter from the core.

[Submitted on 3 Apr 2024]

Probing star formation rates and histories in AGN and non-AGN galaxies across diverse cosmic environments and extensive X-ray luminosity ranges​

G. Mountrichas, M. Siudek, O. Cucciati

In this work, we compare the SFRs and SFHs of AGN and non-AGN galaxies. We explore these aspects across different density fields and over three orders of magnitude in LX. For that purpose, we employ X-ray AGN detected in the XMM-XXL field and construct a galaxy control sample, using sources from the VIPERS catalogue. Our final samples consist of 149 X-ray AGN with 42<log,[LX,2−10keV(ergs−1)]<45 and 3\,488 non-AGN systems. The sources span a redshift range of 0.5<z<1.0 and 10.5<log[M∗(M⊙)]<11.5. For these systems, there are available measurements for their local densities and their spectral lines from the VIPERS catalogue. To compare the SFR of these two populations, we calculate the SFRnorm parameter. The latter is defined as the ratio of the SFR of AGN to the SFR of non-AGN galaxies with similar M∗ and redshift. Our findings reveal that low and moderate LX AGN that live in low density fields have a nearly flat SFRnorm−LX relation. In contrast, AGN of similar LX that live in high density environments present an increase of SFRnorm with LX. Notably, our results suggest that the most luminous of the AGN exhibit increased SFR relative to non-AGN galaxies, and this trend appears to be independent of the density of the environment. Furthermore, for AGN with similar LX, those in high-density regions tend to have higher SFRnorm values compared to their counterparts in low-density areas. Comparison of the Dn4000 spectral index, which serves as a proxy for the age of the stellar population, reveals that low-to-moderate LX AGN live in galaxies with comparable stellar populations with non-AGN systems, regardless of the density field they live in. However, the most luminous X-ray sources tend to live in galaxies that have younger stellar populations than non-AGN galaxies, regardless of the galaxy's environment.

 

[Harry Costas]

Information about star formation from outflows. Allows us to explain how billions of stars can form over a few million. years.
[Submitted on 4 Apr 2024]

MusE GAs FLOw and Wind (MEGAFLOW) XI. Scaling relations between outflows and host galaxy properties​

Ilane Schroetter, Nicolas F. Bouché, Johannes Zabl, Martin Wendt, Maxime Cherrey, Ivanna Langan, Joop Schaye, Thierry Contini

Absorption line spectroscopy using background quasars can provide strong constraints on galactic outflows. In this paper, we investigate possible scaling relations between outflow properties, namely outflow velocity \Vout, the mass ejection rate M˙out, and the mass loading factor η and the host galaxy properties, such as star formation rate (SFR), SFR surface density, redshift, and stellar mass using galactic outflows probed by background quasars from MEGAFLOW and other surveys. We find that Vout (η) is (anti-)correlated with SFR and SFR surface density. We extend the formalism of momentum-driven outflows of Heckman et al. to show that it applies not only to down the barrel studies but also to winds probed by background quasars, suggesting a possible universal wind formalism. Under this formalism, we find a clear distinction between ``strong'' and ``weak'' outflows where ``strong'' outflows seem to have tighter correlations with galaxy properties (SFR or galaxy stellar mass) than ``weak'' outflows.